Editor’s Note
This year, we commemorate the 350th anniversary of Maharaja Shivaji’s coronation, a pivotal moment in the History of Maharashtra and India. Our reticence in recounting our history has allowed Westerners to claim credit for the evolution of concepts, designs, and the art of warfare. However, a more comprehensive examination of history reveals the Indian mastery of statecraft and warfighting, predating the Western empires’ dominance in the East. This article delves into the ancient Indian empires and Shivaji’s military triumphs, with a special focus on his intelligence framework, the cornerstone of his arsenal. The article is divided into three parts, with Parts II and III to follow.
Beyond Western Warfare: Shivaji’s Advanced Tactics of Intelligence Operations
After enduring a prolonged era of foreign rule, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj not only envisioned but also brought to life a ‘Hindu kingdom in an Islamic India’. The renowned historian Sir Jadunath Sarkar emphasizes that Shivaji’s true greatness was not merely in the establishment of a kingdom but in the remarkably adverse circumstances under which he forged it.
The Chinese refer to a ‘century of humiliation‘ (1839 to 1949 – the century of decline, defeat of the Qing dynasty leading to foreign intervention, annexation and subjugation of China). Similarly, we could reflect on a millennium of foreign subjugation, comprising Islamic invaders and British imperialists. Maharaja Shivaji’s Hindavi Swarajya, ‘self-rule of Hindu people’, and subsequent Maratha confederacy stand as a glorious testament to our resilience and indomitable spirit.
Shivaji had to deal with two formidable foes: the Bahamani sultanates of the south, especially Bijapur’s Adilshahi, and the last mighty Mughal, Aurangzeb of the north. Shivaji’s miraculous escapades and successes are part of much-discussed history. Still, little research has gone into the intelligence network that he created, which enabled him to defeat many times bigger armies in a few days or capture impregnable forts in a matter of hours.
Shivaji followed two axioms of intelligence to the hilt: a. “Praemonitus, Praemunitus” or “Forewarned is forearmed.” The Latin phrase sums up the need for an intelligence system as an invisible weapon.
- Intelligence is a force multiplier
- According to a modern definition, “Intelligence is the product resulting from The Collection, Collation, Evaluation and Analysis of Information” on issues covered by the mandate of intelligence agencies.
However, the profession of collecting intelligence is quite old, and spying is often described as the ‘second oldest profession’ in history.
History
The Rigveda, an ancient Indian text, and even Indian epics such as the Mahabharata contain intriguing references to agents or spies. For instance, the ‘Shanti Parva’ of the Mahabharata advises that these ‘detectives’ are the very roots of the state, ‘Rajyam Pranidhimoolam’, underscoring their crucial role in ancient Indian society.
The king is called ‘Charchakshu’ since he uses agents (char) as his eyes (chakshu). They collect information that the king uses for future planning and operations. Chanakya’s ‘Arthashastra’
Chanakya (Kautilya or Vishnugupta) was one of India’s greatest strategists and mentor of Emperor Chandragupta, who was brilliant yet highly underrated by Western and Marxist historians. Under his guidance, Chandragupta Maurya, a commoner by birth, rose to be a King and subsequently established the Mauryan Empire. At its zenith, the empire was one of the most prominent empires in the world and the mightiest ever in the Indian subcontinent, stretching from present-day Myanmar to Afghanistan and Kashmir to Tamil Nadu. It had one currency, one system and one law based on the treatise ‘Arthashastra’. A millennium before Machiavelli, Chanakya had given Emperor Chandragupta a holistic lesson on governance, diplomacy, economy, and spycraft.
‘Arthashastra’, our ancient Sanskrit treatise on statecraft, political science, economic policy and military strategy written by Arya Chanakya, has a chapter on ‘Dandaneeti’ that covers intelligence work. It advocates:
- An intelligence system of Resident (Sansthah) and Mobile (Sancharah) agents, who are the ruler’s eyes and ears, can be used for governance (in peace) and war.
- Gather three-dimensional intelligence, i.e., information to be corroborated by three sources (like a point in space determined by three axes).
“Trayanam Ekawakye Samprattyayaha!” (Arthashstra, Chapter 12)
- Dandaniti indicates methods of selection, recruitment of agents, tradecraft, and mechanics of operation (‘mech-ops’)
- Recruitment of special border sources, double agents, diplomats, etc.
The stationary spies included fake disciples (Kapatikas), recluses (Udasthitas), householders (Grihapatika), merchants (Vaidehakas), and ascetics (Tapas). The wandering spies included students (Satri), desperados (Tikshna), and poisoners (Rasada); Women as wandering spies disguised as mendicants (Bhikshukis); wandering nuns (Parivrajikas); widows (Mundas), and courtesans (Vrishalis).
Other spies disguised as persons endowed with supernatural powers, persons engaged in penance, ascetics, globetrotters (chakrachara), bards, buffoons, mystics (prachhandaka), astrologers, fortune tellers, physicians, lunatics, the dumb, the deaf, idiots, the blind, traders, painters, carpenters, musicians, dancers, vintners, bakers, chefs, meat sellers, etc., would be sent abroad for espionage.
The spies were to be deployed not only against enemies within and without but also to ascertain the loyalty of the citizens and the allegiance of high officials and dignitaries.
The purpose of giving these details is that Shivaji had practised what Chanakya had preached to a remarkable degree.
Chhatrapati Shivaji
The historian Jadunath Sarkar describes Shivaji’s role in Maratha history in his books History Of Aurangzeb and Shivaji And His Times. Shivaji was a unique, charismatic personality who could dream of a Hindu-pad-padshahi (All India /Hindu Empire) in the subcontinent totally dominated by foreign Islamic rulers.
On Marathas, Jadunath Sarkar cites a 7th-century Chinese visitor to India, Hyuen Tseng, who had found Marathas to be ‘proud, spirited and warlike … grateful for favours and revengeful for wrongs’.
According to Sarkar, among other races in the south, Marathas resemble Afghans’ the most… but lack ‘business capacity.’
At the same time, 17th-century Marathas enjoyed equity fostered by a common religion and a galaxy of saints from Dnyaneshwar to Tukaram belonging to all castes and creeds (a major factor that helped nation-building). Maratha chieftains, however, were serving Muslim Bahamani Kingdoms, Moghuls or fighting among themselves.
In this background, Jadunath Sarkar observes, ‘A genius was needed to unite …. Scattered (Maratha) units into a nation … and that genius was Shivaji.’
The Genius of Shivaji
Shivaji Maharaj was an exceptional personality, a visionary and a natural practitioner of Chanakya–neeti and Arthashastra who can be attributed with many path-breaking initiatives.
- People’s War (French Revolution, 1789 AD?)
It’s generally taught that the French Revolution was a total peoples’ war in which the whole society participated, comprising mass conscription, labour mobilisation, use of all available resources, etc. Yet this is exactly what happened in Maratha territory in the seventeenth century under Shivaji. His army was mass-based, not just mercenaries; the whole population was mobilised and contributed to the war effort.
- People’s Army
Because of mass conscription, Napoleon’s ‘La Grande Armee’ is projected as the first people’s army. As mentioned above, Shivaji was the first one to involve masses, all castes and creeds, in the war effort, though no conscription was imposed. He abolished ‘Watandari’ (granting land for services rendered) and turned all soldiers and military officers into paid state employees.
- Guerilla Warfare
Spanish resistance to Napoleonic French occupation (19th century) is considered to be the first guerrilla (Small War in Spanish) movement but using geography, hill forts, and light cavalry (Maratha territory had Bhimthadi – bred on the shores of Bhima river -horses while others had to import war horses from Arabia or Central Asian steppes), rudimentary navy, etc. Shivaji developed guerrilla tactics to defeat much larger armies in the 17th century. He could be considered the originator of the concept of guerrilla warfare.
- People’s Espionage Network
Shivaji had cultivated good relations with craftsmen – Bara (12) Balutedar – and nomadic tribes who would report any significant event or enemy movement to Shivaji or his officers. However, the evidence is more anecdotal than documentary.
It may, thus, be seen that Shivaji had evolved these concepts nearly a century before the Europeans.
For some reason, many of our historians are besotted by foreigners’ achievements and forget the contributions and campaigns of our own heroes.
- Maharaja Shivaji’s contribution to nation-building and adaptation of available resources to fight much stronger enemies is not projected as unique.
- In his book, ‘A Concise History of Warfare’, British Field Marshal Montgomery wrote the following about Peshwa Baji Rao’s victory at Palkhed:
‘They (Marathas) were at their best in the eighteenth century, and the (victorious) Palkhed campaign of 1727–28 in which Baji Rao I out-generalled Nizam-ul-Mulk, is a masterpiece of strategic mobility. The Nizam had mobilised his forces and, for a time, pursued them, but he was bewildered by the swift, unpredictable movements of Marathas, and his men were exhausted.’
For nearly twenty years and 40 campaigns, Peshwa Bajirao I remained undefeated.
Napoleon, who travelled from France to Moscow (2000 plus km) with half a million strong ‘La Grande Armee’ and returned defeated with decimated forces, is considered to be a great General while the 18th century, victorious Marathas of Raghunath Peshwa who went from Pune to capture Attock (nearly 2000 km from Pune), chased Taimur (son of Afghan King, Ahmedshah Abdali) out of India and returned victorious, are forgotten.
Jayant Umranikar
